Hathor|Hathor~~HATHOR ("House of the Face")~~Places of worship: Throughout Egypt, especially in Dendera~~Hathor's main roles were as goddess of love and happiness, universal motherhood and fertility. When she was angry, however, she became a violent destroyer, assuming the form of Sekhmet, the lion-goddess. Hathor was often depicted with a cow's head, and sometimes as a great star-spangled cow in her fertility aspect, but generally she retained a human face. Her symbol as goddess of joy was the sistrum, and sometimes her head was depicted as sistrum-shaped. In some mythologies, Hathor was considered to be the Right Eye of Ra and thus self-created, while in others she was considered the daughter of Ra and Nut, and eventually Ra's wife, to whom she bore Ihy, the god of music. ~~The mythology surrounding Hathor deals primarily with her role as the Eye of Ra. In one instance, Ra had just created his first two children, Shu and Tefnut, only to lose them in the waters of Chaos, so he sent Hathor as his Eye to find them. When she returned quickly and successfully, Ra granted her the permanent position as his Eye. In another instance, Hathor became angry and ran away from Egypt. Taking the form of the lion goddess Sekhmet, she dwelt in the desert regions slaughtering everything she encountered. Because Hathor was the goddess of love and joy, all happiness disappeared in Egypt in her absence, prompting Ra to send the god of wisdom, Thoth, to retrieve her. In his mission Thoth knew that he would be killed by Hathor if she recognized him, so he took the form of a baboon and acted very humble. Hathor did not recognize him, and Thoth was able to lure her back to Egypt using clever allegories and compliments. Some accounts even relate that Hathor and Thoth were married upon their return. ~~The final common story of Hathor took place in Egypt's legendary Golden Age. Some human conspirators had planned to attempt an overthrow of Ra. Learning of their rebellious intentions, the gods sent Hathor as Ra's Eye to wreak havoc against the would-be usurpers. Once again taking the fierce feline form of Sekhmet, Hathor quickly enacted vengeance on the guilty humans. Unfortunately, Hathor enjoyed the slaughter too much, and was anxious to annihilate the rest of humanity the next day. Fortunately for humanity, Ra only desired a just punishment for humans rather than extinction, and he realized that he would have to trick Hathor in order to prevent her from completing the slaughter. Thus, he ordered his servants to brew vast quantities of alcohol, which were then mixed with red berries to look like blood. The next morning when Hathor set out to complete her task she encountered what she took to be a field of blood, and in her blood-lust paused to drink it all. Soon she was quite drunk, and to the relief of the humans resumed her normal loving character.|Gods|25|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0025.PIC
Taueret and Bes|Taueret and Bes~~TAUERET (Thoeris or Apet: "The Great One")~~Places of worship: throughout Egypt, especially at Thebes and Deir el-Bahri ~~Taueret was a great mother-goddess, and protector of women in pregnancy and childbirth. She was represented as a pregnant female hippopotamus with human breasts, lion's legs and a crocodile's tail. Taueret was generally looked upon as a very beneficent deity married to the god Bes.~~BES~~Places of worship: Originally the Sudan, later throughout Egypt~~Bes was certainly one of the more unique of the Egyptian pantheon. He was always depicted as an ugly-faced dwarf or pygmy, with big eyes and a lion's mane, and often wearing animal skins. Despite his strange and fearsome appearance, Bes was the greatest friend of women, protecting them and their newborn in childbirth and marriage. As a child was being born, Bes would dance around in circles, beating a drum or tambourine, and slashing about with knives. The laughter and menace this caused would frighten away any evil spirits. Bes also protected his worshippers from all manners of beasts and dangerous animals, and was often depicted in a military uniform as destroyer of his follower's enemies. ~~His primary role, however, was as a god of merry-making who played the harp, lyre, and tambourine, and worshipped with dancing and music. From being a protector at birth, Bes gradually became a protector of the dead, and was depicted on the pillows supporting the heads of mummies. Bes was generally considered to be married to the hippopotamus-goddess Taueret, although his female counterpart was the fire-spitting serpent Beset.|Gods|26|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||V|AW0026.PIC
Maat|Maat~~MAAT (Mayet, Maet: "Order" or "Truth")~~Places of worship: Throughout Egypt~~Maat was the goddess of truth, justice, and reality, and symbolized the balance of duality. She was believed to be the basis of civilization, and of Egyptian strength when the Pharaoh ruled justly. Without Maat, creation would have been impossible, and even the gods themselves could not have come into existence, for they had to live by her laws, just as did the lowliest human. All judges were looked upon as priests of Maat, and her own role as judge extended to the Hall of Judgment, where she served as the scale for the official Weighing of the Heart. In the final analysis, it was her order that decided if a soul had earned the right to be reborn in the next world. In some traditions, Maat was the daughter of Ra and the wife of Thoth, with whom it was said she emerged out of the void at the dawn of creation.|Gods|27|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0027.PIC
Thoth|Thoth~~THOTH ~~Places of worship: Middle Egypt, Eshmunen or Hermopolis~~The God Thoth was depicted either as an Ibis-headed man, or a dog-faced baboon. He was said to have been created by his own utterance, or by that of Ra; in some other accounts he is said to have emerged from the head of Set. In his Ibis aspect, Thoth was especially revered as the god of scribes and of learning. He invented and taught words, writing and laws. He is said to have written the greatest book of magic, as well as forty-two volumes containing all of the wisdom of the world. Thoth was seen as a great lord of magic, teaching Isis magical spells which allowed her to restore Osiris to life, and to heal Horus of his various afflictions. In the court case of Horus vs. Set, Thoth defended the side of justice, continually maintaining that Horus was in the right, and that Set was a liar. ~~Early in his existence, Thoth did a great service to Ra by retrieving his Eye from Nubia. In reward for this service Thoth was given the moon. In this form he was said to be a white curled-up baboon, who traveled through the sky each night to shed light on the earth when the sun was gone. Because of this relationship to the moon, Thoth was also called "Measurer of Time," and associated with astronomy. In addition, he was the accountant of the gods, as well as personal scribe to Ra.|Gods|28|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0028.PIC
The Battle Of Horus And Set|The Battle Of Horus And Set~~The background to this story involves a good portion of the legend of Osiris' death and resurrection. Isis, Osiris, and Set were three of five siblings forming the lower part of the Ennead (council of nine). The god of fertility Osiris had presided over Egypt as king by linear descendent for twenty-eight years. His brother Set, jealous of Osiris' popularity, gathered together with a group of conspirators and murdered Osiris by suffocating him in a box sealed with lead, which they threw into the Nile to float out to the sea. The rest of the story of Isis and Osiris is related elsewhere.~~Soon Horus was born to Isis, and with the help of various other gods and goddesses he was able to reach the age of young adulthood, despite numerous attempts on his life by Set. All throughout his childhood Horus was instructed in the arts of warfare by the shade of his dead father Osiris in preparation to his taking vengeance against Set. After long and arduous training, Horus was ready to claim his right to the throne. ~ ~After the fighting between the two rivals had gone undecided, Set elected to bring the matter before the judgment of the Ennead, bringing their fight for the right to the throne from the battleground to the courtroom floor. Although Set knew that he had stolen Osiris' throne by assassination, he presented the argument that Horus was an impostor pretending to be Osiris' son; and that even if he was his son, he was neither old nor strong enough to lay claim to the royal throne. Horus vehemently denied both of Seth's claims, and claimed the right to the throne on the basis of the divine right of succession from father to son, buttressed by Set's heinous murder of his father. The argument thus presented before the divine jury was in essence the debate between the view that might makes right versus the idea that law, order and reason make right. ~~The trial went on for over eighty years without the court being able to decide either way. Most of the gods favored the argument of Horus, because they had seen the injustices done to him and his family by Set over the years. Ra represented the minority opinion, arguing that Set deserved the throne due to his greater age and experience. Eventually the tribunal decided to ask Neith, the oldest of the goddesses, for her view. Like most of the gods, Neith favored Horus, and suggested that Horus be given the throne, while Set receive twice the amount of his current possessions and two additional wives as compensation. Once again the tribunal were all in agreement and about to give Horus the crown, when Ra refused to consent, believing the tribunal to be acting too hastily. The other gods were now at a high point of anger and frustration, and one of them, the baboon god Baba, said to Ra, "Your shrine is empty," implying that the sun god no longer had any real power.~~This insult so offended Ra that he lay down on his back and began to cry. Thus the trial was further delayed, and none of the gods knew what to do to bring Ra back. Eventually, Hathor cleverly tempted Ra back into the courtroom by dancing and stripping in front of him. Soon the trial reconvened with the same arguments as before, preventing any real decision from being made. ~~Then, Isis disguised herself as a beautiful young maiden and approached Set, asking him for help from an oppressor. Not recognizing her, Set listened attentively as she related how her husband, a humble shepherd, had died and left their son to tend the herd, and how a cruel stranger now had come along and threatened to beat the boy and take his father's cattle. Set immediately replied that he would help them, saying that no stranger should be given cattle when a man has a son as an heir. Hearing this response, Isis turned into a kite, and flew in the sky shouting that Set had condemned himself by his own mouth. Even Ra could not disagree that Set had condemned himself, and the tribunal decided to award the crown to Horus.~~Set, however, could not accept this decision, and persuaded the gods that the issue should be decided by a contest, in which both he and Horus turn into hippopotami, and fight for three months in the water, the loser being the first to leave. During this battle, Isis threw a roped harpoon into the water trying to assure that her son would win, but accidentally hit Horus. She quickly released him and tried again, this time successfully hitting Set, who cried out that she should remember that he was her brother and have mercy on him, and in response she felt guilty and let him go. Horus was enraged by his mother's weakness and cut off her head, and then traveled off to the mountains to be in solitude. The tribunal of gods could not find Horus, but Set managed to sneak up behind him and tear out his eyes, which he then buried in the ground. Hathor eventually managed to find the blind Horus, and healing his eyes, brought him back to the gods. ~~At last, it was decided that the shade of Osiris be summoned to testify. Osiris of course judged that Horus deserved the throne, and that the gods should listen to him because as god of agriculture he had provided the barley and cattle they depended on to live. Ra nonetheless disputed this claim, prompting Osiris to use his authority as god of the dead. Osiris convinced Ra to agree with the rest of the tribunal by reminding him that even as the sun-god, he too must some day pass to the land of the dead, where Osiris ruled and enacted severe punishments on those who did not live justly. ~~At last a verdict had been reached, and Horus was made king. When Set objected, he was tied in chains and the gods agreed to spare his life only on the condition that he use his power as the god of storms and winds to convey the boat of Osiris.|Gods|29|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||V|AW0029.PIC
Introduction|Introduction~~Perhaps the most enigmatic of the ancient Egyptian monuments, the Sphinx has puzzled those in its presence for centuries. Yet the questions who built it, and why, are still being debated. ~~The traditional theory is that the Sphinx and its attendant temple were dedicated to the sun, in the rule of Khafre, around 2500 BC. This theory may help explain the shift in local religious preference around the time of Khufu (Cheops, the builder of the Great Pyramid) and Khafre (his son) towards a solar-oriented religion, represented by the sun-god Ra.|The Sphinx|30|||2,3,4,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||V|AW0030.PIC
The Akhet Hieroglyph|The Akhet Hieroglyph~~A series of stunning solar alignments supports this correspondence. For example, during the autumnal and vernal equinoxes, the sun sets at the precise point of the east-west axis of the temple, making the axis a reference of the astronomical mid-year, when the setting sun strikes over the Sphinx's shoulder straight into the eastern sanctuary of the solar temple. In addition, at the winter solstice, the setting sun precisely traces the arc-outline of the Sphinx's head. ~~This hieroglyph, called akhet ("place where the sun rises and sets"), represents another intriguing correspondance with the alignment of the pyramids, the sphinx, and the movements of the sun. During the summer solstice, the sun sets, from the perspective of the sphinx, directly between the two larger pyramids (associated with Khufu and Khafre), inscribing a gigantic, almost supernatural, akhet. ~~According to local records, by the 15th century BC., when the sphinx was already buried to its neck with sand and debris, it had acquired the nickname Hor-em-akhet ("Horus-in-the-horizon"), a clear reference to both the god Horus and the akhet hieroglyph, because anyone approaching the Giza Plateau from the direction of the ancient city of Memphis would have seen the head of the sphinz silhouetted between the two pyramids.|The Sphinx|32|||2,3,4,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0032.PIC
The Age of the Sphinx|The Age of the Sphinx~~The age of the Sphinx, traditionally reckoned to coincide with the reign of Khafu (Khufu's, or Cheops', son), or about 4500 years ago, has recently been challenged by startling new research, which tentatively places the carving of the Sphinx before 10,000 BC. The traditional evidence supporting association of the Sphinx with Khafre is archaelogical, and highly circumstantial. ~~Recent geological evidence suggests, on the other hand, that the patterns of erosion on the monument itself and on the surrounding rock were caused by water damage. The latest period of heavy rains in that area date from around 5000 to 2350 BC, and before that, to the end of the previous ice age, around 10,000 BC.~~If this revised dating is correct, the monument would indicate the presence of an extremely sophisticated society in the Nile Delta. Who they were and how they lived are questions that can only be answered with further research, but they may have been a source of the stunning technological and societal achievements of the Egyptians.|The Sphinx|33|||2,3,4,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||V|AW0033.PIC
Deciphering Hieroglyphs|Deciphering Hieroglyphs~~The deciphering of the hieroglyphic script marked the birth of the true science of Egyptology. During the pre and early modern periods, all knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost; thus, when early explorers of Egypt excavated the ancient ruins of temples and pyramids they had no understanding of the mysterious pictorial texts which covered these magnificent structures. Consequently, they had no real knowledge about the ancient land of the Nile, and could only guess about the history, culture and origins of its early inhabitants. With the discovery and translation of the famous Rosetta Stone, Egyptologists finally had the key to deciphering these inscriptions. ~~At first, scholars could only estimate the meanings of the hieroglyphic script. Then, in 1799 during Napoleon's conquest of Egypt, some of his troops discovered a tablet, the Rosetta Stone, inscribed in three scripts: the traditional pictorial hieroglyphs, Greek, a known tongue, and Demotic, a cursive form of hieroglyphs. With this sample of identical texts with which they could compare the three writing systems, scholars felt confident they would soon unlock the secret writings. ~~Although the Rosetta Stone did eventually prove to be the key, it took much longer than originally estimated. The first scholar to make significant progress in their translation was an English doctor, Thomas Young. Young's most important contribution was the realization that the hieroglyphs were actually part of an alphabet, and phonetic in character, rather than symbolic, as traditionally thought. He also correctly isolated and defined several of the hieroglyphic pronunciations. Yet, despite his significant breakthroughs, Young was unable to continue his initial success. ~~The man who history records as the ultimate translator of the Egyptian hieroglyphs was the brilliant French scholar Jean Franois Champollion. At a very early age, Champollion had learned to read, and by the time he was seventeen, he already knew Hebrew, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian, and other Eastern languages, as well as English, German, Italian, and the Egyptian Christian language Coptic. In addition, during his youth he was taken to visit Jean Baptiste Fourier, who had been a member of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition; it is believed that Fourier inspired Champollion to make the translation of the hieroglyphs his goal. Champollion soon surpassed the level of Young's work; by isolating letters from specific Greek and Egyptian names and by comparing the Stone to other hieroglyphic writings, Champollion soon succeeded in establishing definite values for a majority of hieroglyphic characters, to the point that the code was at last broken.|Hieroglyphs|36|||2,3,4,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0036.PIC
